Colossus of Constantine Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker provide a description, historical perspective, and analysis of The Colossus of Constantine . The head is 2.97 metres high, the feet are 2 metres long, and the right hand 1.61 metres high (another right hand, discovered in 1744, which was possibly discarded when the statue was reworked, measures 1.66 metres high). It has been argued that the statue, like the Basilica Nova, was originally made by Maxentius. A common interpretation has therefore been that since the colossus was remodelled into Constantine’s likeness after the victory over Maxentius, that this is the statue which Eusebius refers to. Eusebius tells us that a long spear with a horizontal bar laid across it gave the standard the appearance of Christ’s cross, and the emperor ordered similar standards to be carried at the head of his armies as a symbol of their divine protection. The iconography of the portrait, with this upward gaze, possibly in the pose of Jupiter, suggests that Constantine as a rule appointed by God, Constantine as victor or even Constantine … It seems that the head has been cut from a previously existing statue, as there are square dowels cut into the temples, indicating the locks of hair were added to an existing head. Dating from 312-330 CE, after Constantine’s victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge near Rome, which saw him go on to become sole ruler of the empire, the Colossus has attracted a lot of attention over the years and been the source of much discussion. Constantine’s face, which is clean shaven, has a placid expression with large, deeply carved eyes directed towards heaven. According to Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History IX.9.11 (see also Life of Constantine I.40): Taken from Kirsopp Lake, Eusebius, The Ecclesiastical History, volume II (Loeb Classical Library 265; London: Heinemann, 1932), p. 363-364. τῷ σωτηριώδει σημείῳ, τῷ ἀληθεῖ ἐλέγχῳ τῆς ἀνδρείας τὴν πόλιν ὑμῶν ἀπὸ ζυγοῦ τοῦ τυράννου διασωθεῖσαν ἠλευθέρωσα, ἔτι μὴν καὶ τὴν σύγκλητον καὶ τὸν δῆμον Ῥωμαίων τῇ ἀρχαίᾳ ἐπιφανείᾳ καὶ λαμπρότητι ἐλευθερώσας ἀποκατέστησα. However, the emperor, knowing that his help had come from God, did not indulge in these acclamations, but rather at once ordered a trophy of Christ’s passion to be set up in the hand of a statue of himself. It is possible that Eusebius referred to the statue in his works, the Life of Constantine and the Ecclesiastical History, which also records its inscription. Moreover, in words attributed to Constantine himself (although some have questioned their authenticity over the years), “the only power in man which can be elevated to a comparison with that of God, is sincere and guileless service and devotion of heart to himself, with the contemplation and study of whatever pleases him, the raising our affections above the things of earth, and directing our thoughts, as far as we may, to high and heavenly objects: for from such endeavours, it is said, a victory accrues to us more valuable than many blessings” (Oration to the Assembly of the Saints XIV) (see Bardill, Constantine, p. 22-23). The right hand of the Constantine Colossus, mistakenly restored to the pointing formation (it should have been positioned to hold a scepter or spear). A prosito dei tre frammenti bronzei dei Musei Capitolini”, Aurea Roma: Dalla città pagana alla città cristiana, “Remarques sur l’iconographie de Constantin. In addition to the head, there was also a closed right hand found at the basilica, which has a break at the thumb. The Colossus of Constantine, c. 312-15, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome A conversation between Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker in front of the Colossus of Constantine. [37] If the bronze was a part of Maxentius’ plan, it would have been easy to remove the beard, and leave the hairstyle as it had been at the time of Nero and Commodus. The Colossus of Constantine Title: The Colossus of Constantine Made: 312–315 AD Rediscovered: 1486 Material: White marble, brick, wood, gilded bronze Museums: Capitoline Museums English translation by Arthur Cushman McGiffert, in Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. 8. 3). Portions of the Colossus, from the New Basilica on the Velia, now reside in the Courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, on the Capitoline Hill. This unique portrait has many highly distinctive features including a square jaw, projecting dimpled chin, carefully arranged locks, and an aquiline nose. The fragment of the head and neck is around 2.5 meters, while the right hand is 1.66 meters, meaning the statue could have been as much as 12 meters tall. The marble is a combination of Parian and Carrara. . For some scholars, as we shall see, the colossus is particularly revealing in this regard, especially when considered in conjunction with the words of Constantine’s contemporary, the church historian Eusebius. In the second and early-third centuries, flowing beards came to represent the notion of the ‘philosopher emperor,’ for instance in portraits of Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla, then changing to show shorter, more military style facial hair on ‘soldier emperors.’ Elsner argues, therefore, that the presentation of Constantine here intends to portray him as “the archetypal Roman general of the distant imperial past, a new Augustus, a new Trajan”; indeed, the famous arch of Constantine also presents him as a new Trajan (Imperial Rome, p. 61). A Christian soldier is imprisoned because he refuses to wear the laurel crown, The contradiction between Roman military service and God’s laws, The hidden symbolism in Rome’s displays of power, The Colossus of ConstantineAuthor(s) of this publication: Kimberley FowlerPublishing date: Wed, 04/11/2018 - 22:59URL: https://www.judaism-and-rome.org/colossus-constantineVisited: Thu, 01/21/2021 - 00:24, Copyright ©2014-2019, All rights reserved About the project - ERC Team - Conditions of Use, Re-thinking Judaism’s Encounter with the Roman Empire. The marble indicates that it was reworked, as Parian marble was not imported to Rome beyond the Hadrianic era (see Linda Safran, “What Constantine Saw,” p. 43 n. 2). [JWO: the image here actually shows fragments of the colossal bronze statue of Constantius II (ruled 337-61 AD)] The great head is carved in a typical, abstract, Constantinian style (“hieratic emperor style”) of late Roman portrait statues, whereas … Ancient Rome Ancient Art Ancient Greece Roman C Carpeaux Constantine The Great Pointing Fingers Hand Pointing Hand Sculpture. TRUE or FALSE: Portraits of Roman emperors were entirely realistic. The Colossus of Constantine. It is possible that it was an imperial standard with Christian insignia that was used at the Milvian Bridge. Rufinus, in his fifth century Latin translation of Eusebius’s Greek text, renders the inscription slightly differently (832.6-9). Indeed, as Bardill observes, the fact that the statue seems to have once held something supports this theory. 35 meters) versus the 70 cubits of the Colossus of Rhodes (32 meters). Instead of creating a new style or a new iconography, it made the necessary adaptations to Pagan traditions and drew on them. no. The striking head bears very distinctive features—a square jaw, with a dimpled chin, and a distinctive aquiline nose that is pointed at the tip, which was characteristic of the style introduced by Constantine’s father. Another candidate of the statue mentioned by Eusebius is the Statue of Constantine at the Lateran, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age by Jonathan Bardill, Constantine: Roman Emperor, Christian Victor by Paul Stephenson, The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine edited by Noel Emmanuel Lenski, Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century edited by Kurt Weitzmann, The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Capitoline Museums Album (Byzantine Legacy Flickr), Colossal statue of Constantine (Musei Capitolini), The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age, Constantine: Roman Emperor, Christian Victor, The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century. However, others are more cautious about drawing such conclusions, and prefer to understand the statue’s features as more in line with earlier Roman and Hellenistic tradition. Possibly, this was added after he adopted the diadem after 324 CE, following his defeat of Licinius. head, chest, arms, and legs made from marble, with bronze drapery). Saved by Sarah Bogue. The Arch of Constantine borrowed elements from other monuments to show that Constantine was a good emperor just like ____ _____ ____ who represented a golden age. “Under this singular sign (singularius signum), which is the mark (insigne) of true excellence, I restored (restituo) the city of Rome, the senate, and the Roman people, torn away by the yoke (iugo) of tyrannical rule (tyrannicus dominatio), to their former freedom (libertas) and nobility (nobilitas).”, (The translation from the Latin is my own). Plotinus, Enneads I.2.4; “What Constantine Saw,” p. 46-47). He returned to the tradition of the eternally young emperor. The same heavenward gaze is also found on coins minted after the defeat of Licinius in 324 CE (see, for example, Solidus depicting the head of Constantine celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of his rule, 335 CE). The colossal statue of Constantine comes from the Basilica Nova in Rome, which was started by Maxentius and finished by Constantine after he defeated Maxentius in 312. in a niche in the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine. Constantine's features merge realism with the abstracted style of the tetrarchs. In his panegyrical Life of Constantine I.28, Eusebius describes how prior to the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine received a vision from God: “He said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, bearing the inscription, conquer/prevail (νικάω, nikaō) by this. Rome, Musei Capitolini, inv. coins struck in 306 and 307 CE after his proclamation as his father’s successor). For Justin, the fact that the symbolism of the cross permeates Roman displays of power and dominion without them even realising it shows that through Roman power, God’s greater plan is at work, regardless of whether the Romans acknowledge Him or not. The Colossus of Constantine , c. 312–15, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome Eusebius claims that the emperor “ordered a lofty spear in the figure of a cross to be placed beneath the hand of a statue representing himself, in the most frequented part of Rome, and the following inscription to be engraved on it in the Latin language: “Through this sign (σημεῖον, sēmeion) of salvation, which is the true symbol of goodness, I rescued your city and freed it from the tyrant’s yoke, and through my act of liberation I restored the senate and people of Rome to their ancient renown and splendor.”. Marble, 312 CE. The fragments, which are made of Parian and Carrara marble, include the head and neck, the right leg from the knee to the foot, the left leg below the knee and the left foot, part of the right arm and the right hand. Dec. 30, 2020. The Colosseum was famously used for gladiatorial combat. The model for this sculpture was the Colossus of Rhodes, simulacrum of the sun-god Helios executed by Chares of Lindos around 280 BC. . The body was made out of wood and mud brick and then the exterior was covered in gilded bronze to represent golden robes. Moreover, by loud proclamation and monumental inscriptions he made known to all men the salutary symbol, setting up this great trophy of victory over his enemies in the midst of the imperial city, and expressly causing it to be engraved in indelible characters, that the salutary symbol was the safeguard of the Roman government and of the entire empire. The hair itself is very Constantinian on the forehead, yet that on the top of the head is more in the style of earlier statues, more voluminous in its curls. For our purposes, the statue and the debate surrounding it is particularly significant for what it might reveal about the changing attitude towards the compatibility not only between Christianity and Roman rule more generally, but particularly Christianity and the Roman army. The bronze colossus may also have been intended for reuse by Maxentius, and was inherited by Constantine, alongside the overall plan for the late-Antique reorganization of Rome. ... but also in the style of carving, which recalls through its naturalism Ancient Greece and Rome. Possibly, then, the image of Constantine reinterprets a classic Hellenistic pose in Christian terms, or perhaps more likely, it is intended to be ambiguous, portraying the emperor’s divine inspiration, but leaving the question of which God, or gods, this came from for the viewer to decide (Bardill, Constantine, p. 24). For instance, Lysippus’s statue of Alexander the Great was reportedly designed like this, and there are many other examples (Bardill, Constantine, p. 19). These marble fragments are all that remain from a colossal statue (around 40 feet tall). The detailed features of the head and face are somewhat uncharacteristic for a colossus (Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, p. 204). It is also interesting to note in connection with Eusebius’s claims that Constantine’s statue was furnished with a “trophy” of the cross, that Justin Martyr in his First Apology LV.4-8 viewed Roman vexilla and trophies as unwittingly representing Christ’s cross due to their T-Bar shape. Portions of the Colossus now reside in the Courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, on the Capitoline Hill, above the west end of the Forum. about Solidus depicting the head of Constantine celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of his rule (335 CE), about Tertullian, On the Military Garland I.1-4, about Tertullian, On the Military Garland XI.1-4, about Justin Martyr, First Apology LV.4-8, about Eusebius of Caesarea, Life of Constantine I.26, 28-29, head_right_knee_cap_right_hand_left_lower_leg_right_foot_left_knee_cap.jpg, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Venice_%E2%80%93_The_Tetrarchs_03.jpg, Solidus depicting the head of Constantine celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of his rule, 335 CE, Solidus depicting the head of Constantine celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of his rule (335 CE). This unique portrait of Constantine is one of the most important statues of Late Antiquity. Palatine Hill; Domus Flavia; Lupercal; DOMUS AUGUSTANA; Palace of Septimus Severus; Interesting Facts; Discover Rome . Remove Ads By 325 he had succeeded in reunifying the empire, having defeated the last of his former tetrarchic colleagues, the eastern emperor Licinius. The Colossus of Constantine (Italian: Statua Colossale di Costantino I) was a huge acrolithic statue of the late Roman emperor Constantine the Great (c. 280–337) that once occupied the west apse of the Basilica of Maxentius near the Forum Romanum in Rome. Constantinople. Arch of Constantine; Circus Maximus; Domus Aurea; ROMAN FORUM. The Colossus of Constantine , c. 312–15, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome Millennium: Jahrbuch zu Kultur und Geschichte des ersten Jahrtausends n. Chr. It is possible, therefore, that a statue of a previous emperor was remodelled after the victory in 312 CE to represent Constantine (Constantine, p. 206-207). Only small parts of it are left intact, including the head and a hand (fig. Rather than being something present in the background, using the Roman military to work towards a greater purpose, yet not properly acknowledged, the support of the Christian God was now visible, accepted, and promoted. This was a huge statue of the late Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. As Jaś Elsner explains, the colossus differs from earlier representations of emperors in that Constantine is not depicted with a beard, despite earlier portraits of the emperor where he does indeed have one (e.g. Additional fragments of the statue (the left breast and the right arm) were discovered in 1951. The statue is no longer intact, but various parts remain of the acrolith (i.e. Emperor Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, was sole leader of the Roman Empire from 325 until his death in 337. ... especially after Constantine, and especially in the Eastern zone of the Empire. Moreover, as Bardill argues, the upward gaze was also adopted in late antiquity for philosophers, who were understood to be possessing of divine qualities. The emerging abstraction that is present in the Colossus of Constantine came to be associated with _____. For those who looked upon this great statue, Constantine’s depiction would not have struck them as drastically departing from Roman tradition. The dowel holes on the temples suggest that a diadem was attached to the brow, while the right hand originally grasped an imperial standard or staff. Look at the two figures. False. The great head, arms and legs of the Colossus were carved from white marble, while the rest of the body consisted of a brick core and wooden framework, possibly covered with gilded bronze. Blog. Practice: Arch of Constantine . By continuing to use this website, you consent to Columbia University’s usage of cookies and similar technologies, in accordance with the Safran looks to late-Roman understandings of the eye as an active organ, which shaped the objects it beheld and had the power to transform them (e.g. For instance, the second century author Tertullian in his On Idolatry XIX objects to Christians in the Roman army on the grounds that military service necessarily involved idolatry, such as the swearing of an oath of allegiance to the emperor, and in some roles the performing of sacrifices (see also Tertullian, On the Military Garland I.1-4; On the Military Garland XI.1-4; Tertullian is not opposed to the Roman army and its role in the empire’s expansion per se, as is made clear elsewhere in his writings where he asserts Christianity’s support for and prayers for the emperor and his army). He points to the Neo-Platonist Proclus, for instance, who is described by his biographer Marinus of Samaria as having radiant eyes, and a countenance “resplendent with a divine light” (The Life of Proclus XXIII). The statue was bare-chested and was probably was placed on a pedestal. Constantine moved the administrative center of the empire from Rome to _____, which contributed to the decline of Rome as a city. In the Life of Constantine I.30-31 Eusebius describes how after his vision of Christ prior to the battle with Maxentius, he instructed a standard to be made which was gilded with gold and jewels, and bore Christ’s initials, the Greek letters Chi and Rho. Judging by the size of the remaining pieces, the seated, enthroned figure would have been about 12 meters (40 feet) high. Colossus of Constantine Head Bust Sculpture Roman Emperor, Replica of early 4th century AD made of cast stone and hand-finished in antique finish. has, however, demonstrated that the marble colossus originally showed Hadrian, and was recut into Constantine in Late Antiquity, when almost all marble sculptures were reused or À propos du remploi de portraits de ‘bons empereurs’”, Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’École Française de Rome. This website uses cookies to enhance your user experience. I just spent two weeks in Italy and another in Morocco and though the backup of work and jetlag has been much harder to get over than I expected, it was completely worth it to get away from the daily grind and explore. Further arguments for the colossus’s potential connection to the relationship between Constantine and the Christian deity have been inspired by what are commonly believed to be references to the statue in the writings of Eusebius. See the commentary for a discussion of this. How to increase brand awareness through consistency; Dec. 11, 2020 If we consider for a moment non-Christians, including Jews, who saw this statue, with the exception of the sign of the cross (if it was indeed added to the colossus), the style would likely not have appeared much different from previous statues of pagan emperors. Second Series (New York: Scribner, 1904), p. 564. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo1.ark:/13960/t6m04pr8j;view=1up;seq=378, “Through this sign of salvation, which is the true symbol of goodness, I rescued your city and freed it from the tyrant’s yoke, and through my act of liberation I restored the senate and people of Rome to their ancient renown and splendor.”. The colossus appears to have been carved from an existing statue, possibly of Hadrian (see Cécile Evers, “Remarques sur l’iconographie de Constantin,” p. 794). But the dimensions of the colossus of Nero were larger: it was 119-foot-high (ca. After his victory over Maxentius, Constantine’s official portraits adopted a new style. In the colossus, especially if it can indeed be connected with Eusebius’s narrative, the classic Augustan imagery of a divinely chosen leader liberating the Roman people and taking the empire forward into a new golden age is drawn upon and adapted, reimagined to include a pious emperor who recognised that true strength was found in the God of the Christians. THE CONSTANTINIAN BRONZE COLOSSUS NERO’S HAIRSTYLE… 115 F IGS 2a-b – Colossal marble portrait of Constantine. Arch of Constantine, Roman Empire, Rome, Italy, 312-315 CE Answer these questions:-What is the story of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity?Why was this so significant? The back of the forearm, as well as the head, are flat, which suggests the statue was in direct contact with a wall. Arch of Constantine. Only parts of the Colossus remain, including the head that is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long. The remains of the right bicep, bent elbow, and forearm indicate that the right arm was raised up, and coming out from the shoulder horizontally. Reconstruction of the Colossus in the Basilica Nova by the University of Virginia, From The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine by Eusebius of Caesarea. Constantine’s face, which is clean shaven, has a placid expression with large, deeply carved eyes directed towards heaven. Other sources connected with this document: Constantine’s vision of Christ prior to the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Historisk-filosofiske meddelelser/Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab 58, “I colossi di bronzo a Roma in età tardoantica: dal Colosso di Nerone al Colosso di Costantino. by Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker. The marble friezes were re-used from earlier imperial monuments so that the overall impression is a lack of a coherent style. This was likely the military standard that Constantine carried into battle, which combined with the inscription added below made clear the emperor’s debt to and connection with the divine. The head in 2.97 metres high in total, and 1.74 metres from chin to crown. Earlier Christian writers had struggled to accept the idea of Christians within Rome’s military ranks, seeing the two as fundamentally opposed. The Colossus of Constantine was positioned inside this basilica, in the western apse. The head in 2.97 metres high in total, and 1.74 metres from chin to crown. The head bust of the Colossus of Constantine, a huge acrolithic statue that once occupied the west apse of the Basilica of Maxentius near the Forum Romanum in Rome. The placing of the trophy in the hand of Constantine’s statue is also described in the Ecclesiastical History IX.9.10, and Eusebius in both instances seems to make clear that it is an existing statue which the trophy is added to. It measures 620 by 513 feet (189 by 156 metres) and could hold as many as 50,000 spectators. Prezi’s Big Ideas 2021: Expert advice for the new year; Dec. 15, 2020. The statue was discovered in pieces in 1486, in the ruins of the great basilica northeast of the Roman Forum. / Yearbook on the Culture and History of the First Millennium C.E. What is relevant for our discussion, is the debate as to what the remains of the statue might tell us about the relationship between Constantine’s apparent Christianity and his role as Roman emperor. At this sight he himself was struck with amazement, and his whole army also, which followed him on this expedition, and witnessed the miracle.” His victory over Maxentius therefore proved that God supported him, and Eusebius tells us that this partnership between the Christian God and the Roman emperor was subsequently proclaimed far and wide by Constantine both through inscriptions, and through the setting up of this “trophy of victory” prominently in Rome, so that all would know the true source of protection of the Roman government and the wider empire (I.40). Constantine the Great was the first Christian emperor of Rome, and his reign had a profound effect on the subsequent development of the Roman, later Byzantine, world. The head, arms and legs of the Colossus were carved from white marble, with the rest of the body constructed from a brick core and wooden framework, possibly covered with gilded bronze. I have also set at liberty the Roman senate and people, and restored them to their ancient distinction and splendor”. Holding on to pagan traditions in the early Christian era: The Symmachi Panel. These roots to the past remained in a very visible and prominent way, therefore, even if the Roman power and that of the Supreme Deity were now acknowledged by the head of the empire as working towards a common cause. However, the colossus was ultimately a visual piece of propaganda, and so Eusebius’s account, while illuminating to us now, must be taken with caution. The position of the left foot, with heel raised, confirms that it was a statue of a seated figure of an emperor. It has also been argued that Maxentius first reused a second-century colossus, perhaps originally of Hadrian, which Constantine later reworked to resemble himself, just as earlier reliefs were incorporated into Constantine's arch by recutting of the imperial heads. The Colossus of Constantine, c. 312-15 (Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome). It is an elliptical structure made of stone, concrete, and tuff, and it stands four stories tall at its highest point. There is also a small dowel hole at the top of the fist, suggesting that it once gripped something. Antiquité, “Eusebius on Constantine: Truth and Hagiography at the Milvian Bridge”, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, “What Constantine Saw: Reflections on the Capitoline Colossus, Visuality, and Early Christian Studies”. The eyes are roughly 0.30 metres high. Another large right hand of 1.66 metres high was found in 1744 during building work near the Capitol, and so it is possible that this was the original hand of the Colossus, discarded when the statue was reworked to include a trophy of the cross in the form of a military standard (see commentary for further details, and Bardill, Constantine, p. 209). The iconography of the portrait, with this upward gaze, possibly in the pose of Jupiter, suggests that Constantine as a rule appointed by God, Constantine as victor or even Constantine as divine. The large, otherworldly eyes of the colossus have been the subject of much discussion, with many seeing them as intended to represent the emperor’s spirituality and connection to God. The face is cleanly shaven, with a contemplative expression and extremely prominent, large eyes, deeply carved, which look upwards. 1622. Marble was used to portray the exposed flesh, while the mantle might have been bronze. Arch of Constantine. For Bardill, the statue was likely recut from a previous colossus after 312 CE, when Constantine defeated Maxentius, and then restyled again after the defeat of Licinius to feature the deep, ethereal eyes that it now has (Constantine, p. 204). Once located in the west apse of the Basilica of Maxentius, fragments of the Colossus of Constantine are now located in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini on the Capitoline Hill, Rome. Portions of the Colossus now reside in the Courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, on the Capitoline Hill, above the west end of the Forum. From what we can deduce from Eusebius—and it must of course always be borne in mind that his portrayal of the emperor as the archetypal Christian ruler is highly stylised—the relationship between the emperor, the Roman army, and the Christian deity had evolved since Tertullian and Justin Martyr’s day.

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